With the help of a hook and yarn, you can knit original things, from hats to dresses, sweaters. To create unique products, it is important to master knitting skills, basic patterns, weaving methods, and learn to “read” patterns. One of the important and popular elements is the crochet stitch. Its undoubted advantage is that it will take less time to create a thing, since such a column is higher than a classic one, and the product knits faster. Using the CCH (abbreviated name of the element) in your work, you can create amazing patterns that will make the item unique.
Stages of crocheting a crochet stitch with a photo
Learning how to knit CCH is not difficult, especially if you have crochet skills. It is important to remember the sequence of actions, how to correctly perform and calculate the number of runways. To create a masterpiece you will need:
- Hook, the size of which depends on the chosen yarn and the required density of weaving. The denser the threads, the thicker it is worth choosing a tool. The material of the tool also plays an important role, it is better to give preference to a metal product or made of plastic.
- Threads, the choice of which depends on personal preferences and what kind of product should be the result. A dense, and sometimes even coarse, fabric comes out of thick yarn, which is not very suitable for some products (for example, summer panamas, sundresses or T-shirts). Beginners who are just starting to learn can get advice on choosing yarn from consultants in hobby or knitting stores.
Step-by-step crochet stitches:
How to connect rows when knitting in a circle
Many products are made in the technique of knitting in a circle, in the form of an oval, and the needlewomen have a problem how to connect the beginning and end of the row so that the work is neat, the loops hold well, and the junction is not very conspicuous. With circular knitting, several ways of joining rows can be used, the choice depends on the weaving technique and the thing being created:
- When knitting in a spiral, a new round begins by knitting a loop over the first column of the previous row. In order not to go astray and not lose the beginning, it is worth threading a thread of a different color or a pin into the first loop.
- For weaving in concentric circles, it is necessary to close the beginning and end of each row. To make everything look neat, follow the rules: everything starts with an air lift loop (runway), their number depends on the weaving pattern, and ends with a connecting post that is knitted into the upper runway.
- When knitting in rotary rows, to connect, you need to knit a connecting column in the runway. Next, turn the work and continue to knit in the other direction.
Column with two crochets or more
To create a thing with an openwork structure, a double crochet (CC2H) or more can be used. When weaving in this way, a high loop comes out, and the work itself has a free texture. Order of execution:
- Weave a chain, with the required number of VP. In addition, knit 3 lifting loops.
- We make a crochet on the hook. We thread the tool into the fifth loop from the beginning and stretch the thread, after which there will be four elements on the hook.
- We knit all the loops on the hook in pairs: first the first two, then the rest, until 1 loop remains.
- We knit in each VP 1 CC2H to the end of the row.
- At the end, we knit four runways, turn the work around and continue knitting.
To make a column with a large number of crochets (3, 4), it is important to consider a few nuances:
- Correctly calculate the number of lifting loops. For 1 crochet, two runways are needed (for 2 - 4 runways, 3 - 6 runways, and so on).
- Depending on the number of yarns, it is necessary to make a certain number of windings of the thread on the hook.
- When using CC2H, an openwork, free texture of the product comes out.
Technique of knitting facial and purl embossed columns
The basic crochet elements include embossed crochet stitches. They are often found in weaving patterns of many products, so it is very important to familiarize yourself with the execution technique. There are two main types of relief SSN - concave (purl) and convex (facial). Important: such elements cannot be knitted into loops of an air chain; the previous row must be a CCH row.
Concave
Step-by-step instructions for creating concave (purl) embossed columns:
- As a basis, we take the VP chain with one row of CCH knitted.
- We put a working thread on the hook, insert the tool (from right to left) from the wrong side, clasping the element of the previous row. We stretch the yarn, creating a new loop so that there are 3 loops on the tool.
- We knit according to the pattern of weaving CCH so that one loop remains on the hook.
convex
Step-by-step execution of facial (convex) columns:
- Knit a chain of air loops. On the second row, knit 1 dc in each VP.
- We start knitting relief elements: we throw a thread on the hook, then we introduce it from the front side under the CCH of the previous row. Thread the tool from right to left. We grab the thread and pull it out, resulting in 3 loops.
- Next, weave like CCH - we knit the first two loops together, then the remaining 2, so that 1 element remains.
- We knit like this until the end of the row or to create a certain pattern (we focus on the picture).
crossed
You can get a beautiful pattern if you cross the CCH by knitting them crossed. Step-by-step execution instructions:
- We knit a chain of VP of the required length. Additionally, we knit two runways.
- Weave to the end of the row double crochets.
- We skip one loop, and in the next weave 1 CCH. We return to the missed VP and knit a double crochet by crossing the elements.
- Next, weave according to the scheme to the end of the row, in the last loop we knit CCH.
The cross stitch pattern is used for knitting many products. It can be blankets, vests, dresses, sometimes they can be used for finishing things, tying the edges. Such a pattern looks very beautiful and original, and the execution technique is very simple, even beginners in knitting can cope with the work. Watch a video with a detailed description of the implementation of crossed columns:
To get a beautiful thing as a result of crocheting, remember a few useful tips:
- You need to stock up on enough yarn, which is enough to make things.
- The choice of tool must match the thickness of the yarn.
- Before working, read the conventions for the circuit, since many authors do not use standard values.
- Beginning knitters often start and end rows incorrectly, resulting in narrower or wider pieces. To avoid this, start knitting from the first loop of the base, and not the elements of the rise.
- When knitting Art. s / n it is necessary to make the first 2-3 lifting loops so that the product looks even and neat.
- If a specific pattern is used to create a thing, control the correct sequence of knitting elements. The pattern must be the same on both sides of the product.
Video: knitting unfinished double crochets according to the pattern
In many crochet patterns, there are designations for unfinished double crochets, which can be with the same base but different tops; one top and different bases. There are also drawings where the CCHs have a common top and one hook place. Using such schemes, you can also knit lush CCHs. Consider a few instructions for weaving unfinished columns:
- To get started, we knit a chain with a VP of the required length.
- Yarn over on the hook and insert it into the 5th loop of the previous row. We pull the thread, throw another thread on the tool, and two loops are knitted together. After that, two loops remain on the hook.
- Having made a crochet, we introduce the tool into the same loop and pull out the thread. We throw the working thread on the tool again and knit the two extreme loops together, after which 3 elements remain.
- We repeat everything again, as a result, four loops remain on the hook, which are knitted together with the VP.
- Having skipped one loop of the previous row, we repeat everything according to the scheme.
Unfinished checkmark columns:
- We knit a chain from the VP.
- We throw a thread on the working tool, stick the hook into the loop and pull the thread. We knit everything according to the scheme of columns with crochets.
- We repeat the action, knitting another CCH in the same loop of the previous row.
- One loop is skipped, in the next we knit two CCHs.
Unfinished columns with a common top and different bases:
- Weave a chain with VP and knit two runways.
- Yarn over the hook and insert it into the loop of the first row. We pull the thread, and we knit the first two elements.
- We repeat the action, knitting the unfinished CCH into the next loop of the chain.
- We knit all the elements remaining on the hook together with the VP.
Such a simple way of knitting can be mastered even by girls who are just joining this art. Despite the ease of implementation, the result is beautiful patterns that will decorate and complement any crocheted product. To understand the technique of creating unfinished double crochets in more detail, watch the video with a detailed step-by-step description of the technique:
Video tutorial on knitting a double crochet
Crocheting is a fascinating activity, thanks to which it is possible to enjoy the creative process and a chic thing created by one's own hands. To learn how to make chic products, it is important to master the skills of working with a hook, learn the designations of the elements on the diagram and how to weave them. Experienced needlewomen girls, diagrams and videos with a detailed and detailed description of the work can help with this. To see how a crochet stitch is made, to learn the secrets of creating products, watch the video tutorial with detailed instructions:
Consider the conventions that you may encounter in the descriptions of amigurumi.
| Letter designation in the description |
Meaning | Symbol in diagrams | |||||
VP |
air loop | o or 0 |
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SS |
connecting post | ᵔ or |
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RLS |
single crochet |
Or × |
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SSN |
double crochet | ||||||
CC2H |
double crochet column | ||||||
| increase |
|
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| reduction |
|
Meet 3 options for describing the technique of knitting toys - amigurumi:
1. Verbal description using abbreviations, which can also be presented as a table with three columns (row number, description, total number of loops). It is in this format that you will most often find amigurumi patterns on the site.
Example:
| 0 row | We make an amigurumi ring and collect a chain of 2 VPs. | |
| 1 row | 6 sc in the second from the VP hook | |
| 2 row | 1 P repeat 6 times | |
| 3 row | (1 sc, 1 p) repeat 6 times |
We read as follows:
We make an amigurumi ring (see) and in the standard way we knit 6 sc in the first loop made (2nd from the hook). In this case, the second loop is the VP of lifting to a new row. After 6 RLS are connected, tighten the ring by the free end of the thread so that the hole in the center is completely closed and finish the circle with a connecting post.
Having made a lifting loop on a new row (2nd), we knit 6 increases in each loop of the previous row (two columns in each loop). The number means that as a result the row formed 12 loops (since 12 columns were connected in the 2nd row).
After completing the row with the help of the SS and making 1 VP of lifting, we begin to knit the 3rd row. We alternately knit 1 RLS, then 1 increase, then again 1 RLS, etc. Repeat the combination (1 RLS, 1 P) six times. Then again complete the series of SS. Each increase forms two loops, each RLS - one. Total loops in the third row 18 (= 6 * 2 + 6).
The repetition combination can be enclosed both in parentheses (...) and in asterisks *...*
2. Scheme.
The scheme is the most visual and versatile way to describe the knitting of a toy. If you have a diagram and skills in reading it, there is no need for a description and tables.
Therefore, we will consider the main nuances of reading diagrams.
All symbols (with the exception of Japanese characters, of course) are described in the table above.
The diagram shows 1 of the amigurumi parts - the head. A non-standard knitting pattern is used with an oval (not round, as is often the case) beginning and uneven increases and decreases. That is why in this case it is simply impossible to do without a scheme! The table that accompanies the diagram (it is given below) does not give us information about where to do P and U.
On any scheme, the row numbers are always signed, in circles, in this case 1-16. and the diagram is divided into 2 parts. The beginning of the part is from below (rows 1-11), the continuation is from above (12-16).
Each row starts with a symbol 0 (lifting VP) and ends with a thick dot, i.e. connecting column. As a rule, circular knitting is performed in this way. However, there is an option to knit in a spiral. In this case, there will be no clear beginning and end of the row, the VP of lifting and the SS at the end of the row are not knitted. Knitting goes in a spiral. So it is more difficult to follow the execution of the scheme (you can use a pin to mark the beginning) and this is not always acceptable, because. the part may have a slightly slanted appearance. In other cases, on the contrary, a small slope is necessary.
Please note that on the bottom diagram there is an empty row with numbers 7-10. This suggests that the scheme for rows 7-10 is absolutely identical to the scheme of the previous, 6th, row.
After the 11th row is connected, we go to the top of the scheme and continue in the usual way, only the diameter of each row is now reduced due to decreases, so the rows are arranged in a different order (last row in the center).
The total number of loops in the 16th row will be 8. Thus, a small hole will remain in the product. For the loops of the 16th row, the head of the amigurumi will be sewn into the body.
3. Table
Tables can have 2 or 3 columns.
Consider, for example, a complex table from a Japanese magazine that accompanies the amigurumi head diagram discussed above.
In the first column from bottom to top are the row numbers (1-16). In the second change in the number of loops of the row. In the third, the total number of loops in the row.
The two-column table does not have an average.
The initial line with the number 6 means the number of loops, i.e. in this case, we are not dealing with a standard beginning in the form of an amigurami ring, but with an elongated detail.
In the first row, the number of RLS (as indicated by the diagram, see above) is 14. Thus, referring to the diagram, we tie 6 VPs with single crochets. In this case, a triple increase is made (3 columns in one loop) in the very first loop of our initial VP chain. At the end of the first row - an ordinary addition (it can also be called double - 2 columns in 1 loop).
The table helps us navigate the number of additional loops or decrease loops and shows the total number. Agree, counting according to the scheme to check is too long and you can make a mistake.
Rows 6-11 do not have a P or U. The number of loops remains the same - 36 (as in the 5th row). The rows themselves consist of 36 sc, respectively.
In some cases, namely, binding of simple rounded parts, the table may be the only description. In this case, it is understood that the increases and decreases are evenly distributed (for example, after 1 RLS or after 2 RLS). The detail begins with an amigurumi ring and six sc, and each next row increases or decreases by 6 loops. In the training section there is a table of even distribution of decreases and increases.
Conclusion: the most universal description is the scheme, which is also necessary when knitting complex amigurumi. In Japanese magazines, diagrams are usually accompanied by tables. For beginners in crocheting, a brief description of each row is also very useful, because. it is a complete decoding of the scheme, which requires skill to understand. Also, the first version of the description is convenient in that it allows you to immediately determine the number of certain elements and their sequence in a row, as well as the total number of loops in each row. In many simple amigurumi, the verbal description completely replaces the diagram.
Good luck with your mastery!
In order to make it easier to understand the patterns, and to briefly explain and outline knitting techniques, people came up with crochet symbols. We hope that our patterns and symbols for crochet techniques will help you in your work.
How did crochet begin? It is believed that this type of work appeared for the first time in the 19th century. The first crochet hooks were primitive bent needles. Hooks were cheap, in cork handles - for poor embroiderers and expensive steel, silver, ivory - for rich ladies.
Knitting is divided into the following types: simple with a short hook, fork (using a hook and fork), Irish lace (guipure). The crocheted fabric is distinguished by a special weave of threads, a small stretch and density. These knitting properties allow us to use not only woolen, but also cotton threads. Crochet patterns are different combinations of stitches and stitches. I would like to hope that these lessons with a description, in diagrams, will facilitate your work.
Knitting conventions
The base or the first row of any product is a chain of air loops. So that the chain does not pull the fabric together, it needs to be knitted more freely. Read the chart from bottom to top. Usually odd rows are read from right to left, and even rows are read from left to right. In many cases, the direction of knitting is indicated by arrows.
The basic crochet elements are the air loop, single crochet and double crochet. Other elements are their derivatives.
Patterns consist of different combinations of air loops and columns.
A reader of the Sami-with-hands site, Julia, asked for help in learning to read crochet patterns. With great pleasure, I decided to help in this matter. Crochet, guided by the patterns is very simple and fast. It is only in appearance that they seem sinister 🙂 believe me, they are not!
Before we begin to analyze one of the patterns that I tried on myself, I will give a few simple rules, the knowledge of which will help us to read knitting patterns with ease.
Rules for reading crochet patterns:
First, we must know the conventions of the loops, often these are generally accepted signs, but there may be minor differences, in any case, in any magazine or book, they are given immediately after the description, or collected all together at the end of the edition.
Secondly, the reading of the patterns begins from the bottom, the direction usually goes in straight and reverse rows, for convenience, the rows are numbered and the direction of knitting is indicated. We start knitting the first row from right to left.
Thirdly, in the scheme there may be a report - a repeating part of the pattern. Usually it is enclosed by asterisks or arrows of the beginning and end. Knitting begins with loops to the report, then the report itself is knitted with as many repetitions as are necessary for the width of your product; the report ends with loops after it.
Fourthly, the transition from one row to another is indicated by a transition loop, usually this loop is an air loop, their required number is always indicated on the diagram.
Let's now proceed directly to the analysis of the crochet pattern. As an example, I took a pattern from a Japanese magazine, which became the basis of knitting like this: 
The presented pattern is knitted in the forward and reverse direction, the rows are numbered, the direction of knitting is also indicated. Before the beginning of each row, we perform lifting chains, which show us the height of the rows of this pattern.
Let's study the basic notation of loops for this circuit. Main elements:
- air loop (VP);
- single crochet (CH);
- a column with 2 crochets (С2Н);
- lush column (PshS);
- single crochet (RLS).
How these elements are performed is shown in the figures below, respectively.
We turn the knitting over and start knitting the zero row, I called it that because it is not numbered on the diagram for some reason.
At 8 from the hook we knit a loop of the chain * PshS, VP, PshS. We skip 2 VP and in the third we knit CH, 3 VP, CH. We skip 2 VP and in the third we knit PshS, VP, PshS. We skip 3 VPs, in the fourth we knit CH. * Skip 3 VP repeat knitting from * to *.
The row is finished. We unfold the knitting, now we begin numbered rows.
1 row: 3 lifting VP, PshS, * (С2Н, VP, С2Н, VP, С2Н, VP, С2Н, VP, С2Н) - we knit from the arch of three VPs, (PshS, 1 VP, PshS) we knit from the CH of the previous row *, repeat from to *; from the last VP of lifting the previous row, we knit PshS and 1 CH.
We make 3 lifting VPs, which are the beginning of the previous row, turn the knitting over.
2 row: PshS, * 2 VP, RLS, in the 1st VP of the fan of the previous row, 3 VP, RLS in the 2nd VP of the fan of the previous row, 3 VP, RLS in the 3rd VP of the fan of the previous row, 3 VP, RLS in 4- th VP of the fan of the previous row, 2 VP, * (PshS, VP, PshS) from the VP of the fan from 2 PshS of the previous row, repeat knitting from * to *, PshS, CH.
3 row: VP, PshS, 2VP, * 2 VP, RLS in the 1st arch of 3 VPs of the previous row, 3 VPs, RLS in the 2nd arch of 3 VPs of the previous row, 3 VPs, RLS in the 3rd arch of 3 VPs of the previous row row, 2 VP *, (PshS, VP, PshS, VP, PshS) from the VP of the fan of the previous row, repeat knitting from * to *, (PshS, VP, CH) - from the last VP of lifting the previous row.
The row is finished, we make 3 lifting VPs, we turn knitting.
4 row:(PshS, VP, PshS) - from the 1st VP of the previous row, 2 VP, * RLS into the 1st arch from 3 VPs of the previous row, 3 VPs, RLS into the 2nd arch from 3 VPs of the previous row, 2 VPs * , (PshS, VP, PshS, VP) - 2 times in the air loops of the fan of the previous row, finish with two VPs, knit from * to *, (PshS, VP, PshS, CH) - from the last VP of the fan of the previous row.
The row is finished, we make 3 lifting VPs, we turn knitting.
5 row: VP, SN from SN of the previous row, (PshS, VP, PshS) - from the 1st VP of the previous row, we knit CH from the arch with 3 VPs of the previous row, (PshS, VP, PshS) from the first VP of the fan of the previous row, (CH , 3 VP, CH) - from the second VP of the fan of the previous row, (PshS, VP, PshS) from the 3rd VP of the fan of the previous row, we knit CH from the second arch with 3 VP of the previous row, (PshS, VP, PshS) from the first VP of the fan of the previous row, (CH, VP, CH) - from the last VP of lifting the previous row.
The row is finished, we make 4 VP lifts, we turn knitting.
6 row: VP, (С2Н, VP, С2Н) - from the first VP of the previous row, (PshS, VP, PshS) - from the SN of the previous row, then from the arch of the three VPs of the previous row we knit 5 С2Н alternating their VP, we must finish С2Н, (PshС , VP, PshS) - from SN of the previous row, С2Н, VP, С2Н, VP, С2Н.
7 row: 2 VP, RLS in the 1st VP of the previous row, 3 VP, RLS in the 2nd VP of the fan of the previous row, * 2 VP, (PshS, VP, PshS) - from the VP of the fan of the previous row, 2 VP, RLS in 1- th ch of the previous row, 3 ch, sc into the 2nd ch of the fan of the previous row, * 3 ch, sc into the 3rd ch of the fan of the previous row, repeat knitting from * to *, 1 ch, half-column.
The row is finished, we make 1 lifting VP, we turn knitting.
8 row: RLS in the semi-column of the previous row, 3 VP, RLS in the 1st arch of the previous row, * 2 VP, (PshS, VP, PshS, VP, PshS) from the VP between the lush columns of the previous row, 2 VP, RLS in the 1st arch from 3 VP of the previous row, 3 VP, RLS into the 2nd arch from 3 VP of the previous row, * 3 VP, RLS into the 3rd arch from 3 VP of the fan of the previous row, repeat knitting from * to *.
The row is finished, we make 2 VP lifts, we turn knitting.
9 row: 2 VP, RLS in 1 arch of 3 VP, * 2 VP, (PshS, VP, PshS, VP) - 2 times in the air loops of the fan of the previous row, we end with two VPs, instead of 1 VP, RLS in the 1st arch of 3 VP of the previous row *, 3 VP, RLS in the 2nd arch of 3 VP of the previous row, repeat knitting from * to *, VP, CH.
The row is finished, we make 3 lifting VPs, we turn knitting.
10 row: *(PshS, 1 VP, PshS) - from the 1st VP of the fan of the previous row, (CH, 3 VP, CH) from the 2nd VP of the fan of the previous row, (PshS, VP, PshS) from the 3rd VP of the fan of the previous row , CH from the arch with 3 VPs of the previous row *, repeat knitting from * to *.
The row is finished. We continue knitting to the length we need, repeating rows 1 to 10.
I hope this master class on reading a crochet pattern was useful to you. The ability to read crochet patterns greatly facilitates the whole process, I would even say that it speeds up, after repeating the reports, the pattern seems to be imprinted in your head, and you repeat the loops with ease and speed without hesitation.
Ask if something is not clear.
We can make a chain of air loops (VP), a single crochet (RLS) and a double crochet (SN). We know that there can be as many yarns as you like, the height of the column depends on their number. We know that for the height of the row we must not forget to make air loops. By and large, that's all. The whole variety of crocheted things is made with these basic techniques. Only they are used in such amazing combinations and sequences that you simply wonder.
Today we will talk about knitting in a circle
The easiest way. Cast on a chain of, say, 10 air loops. In order for it to turn into a circle, it must be closed. To do this, insert the hook into the first loop of the chain, hook the thread and pull it immediately through the two loops formed on the hook. The result was a BLIND LOOP (SP), in Russian literature it is also called a HALF-COUNTER.
Make a VP, this is necessary to get the height of the row. Insert the hook into the newly formed circle, pick up the thread, stretch it. Pick up the thread again and pull through the two loops formed on the hook. In other words, do . Then do the same single crochet in a circle, trying to keep the loops close to each other. Knit 15 of these stobs. Connect with a blind loop into the first lifting loop.
Important! Usually, in the first row of the circle, the number of loops is one and a half times more than in the initial chain of the VP. But still, in each specific case, it can change, it all depends on the future.
Another way to form the initial circle. Make an initial loop. Do not tighten it on the hook, but, on the contrary, pull it out to the length you want to get a circle. At the base of the loop, where the knot is located, make a VP. Next - RLS in a circle, all in this first big loop. The number of RLS is arbitrary, depending on the size of the first loop. Again, you need to strive to ensure that all the loops lie flat, close.
The first, basic row for circular knitting is ready.
We train:
Dial a chain of 6 VP. Connect it in a circle. 3 VP, 14 CH, introducing the hook into the circle. Connect the joint venture with the upper loop from the initial 3 VP of the chain. Count 3 VPs in the chain as the first SN and take into account that the number of SNs should be 2.5 times more than the VP in the initial VP chain.
Dial a chain of 6 VP. Connect in a circle. 4 VP, 19 С2Н (columns with two crochets) in a circle, connect with the 4th loop of the initial chain of 4 VP. Count 4 VP chain as the first C2H and take into account that the amount of C2H should be 3 times the number of VP in the initial chain + 2.
Dial a chain of 6 VP. Connect in a circle. 4 ch (here it will be counted as the first ch + ch), [ch, 1ch] repeat 9 times. Connect the joint venture with the third VP of the initial chain of 4 VP. Counting the initial chain of 4 VPs for CH and air loop, you should get 10 such sets in total.
squares
Dial a chain of 6 VP. Connect in a circle. Cast on 3 ch (will be counted as the first ch) and, inserting the hook into the middle of the circle, knit further: 2 ch, 3 ch (for the corner) and repeat in square brackets two more times. Connect the joint venture with the upper loop of the initial 3 VP of the chain. In total, you should get 4 corners of 3 VPs each and 4 groups of 3 CHs each.
Dial a chain of 6 P. Connect in a circle. Cast on 3 ch (will be counted as the first ch) and, inserting the hook into the middle of the circle, knit further 3 ch, 2 ch (corner) and repeat in square brackets 2 more times. Connect the joint venture with the upper loop of the initial 3 VP of the chain. In total, you should get 4 corners of 2 VPs each and 4 groups of 4 CHs each.
Fillet square
Dial a chain of 12 VP. Connect in a circle. Dial 3 VP (will be considered as the first CH), 3 CH, introducing the hook into the middle of the circle, 5 VP (corner), then and repeat in square brackets 2 more times. Connect the joint venture with the upper loop of the initial 3 VP of the chain. In total, you should get 4 corners of 5 VPs each and 4 groups of 4 CHs each.
Square variant
Dial a chain of 13 VP. Connect in a circle. 5 VP, CH in the fourth loop of the initial circle, 3 VP, turn